Articles
An Overview of the History and Industry of Hairwork
Jewellery and hair are the ideal combination for the perfect sentimental gift. The individuality of the jewel combined with something so personal as a lock of hair is a token of love and affection that the wearer can never forget or overlook.
Historically, the idea of giving hair as a gift can date to the prehistoric. Locks of hair have been treasured as sentimental objects for as long as there have been organised burials. For the purpose of this article, the focus will remain upon the period dating from the 16th century onwards and the evolution of hairwork in jewellery.
Popularity of hair in jewellery has risen and fallen since the 18th century, moving from a strong industry to virtually nothing at all. The sentiment has become lost over time, particularly in the 20th century where it has left mainstream awareness almost entirely. Keeping the hair of a loved one, particularly the deceased, is not uncommon even today, with lockets being produced to keep the lock of hair.
Custom
The custom of giving and receiving hairwork can be for mourning or sentimental purposes, but its singular theme is love. Rules apply in the giving of hairwork, it can be a grand statement of affection between two people and, in the past, there were rules to abide by. An unmarried girl could receive nothing from an unmarried man unless she was betrothed to him; however, a girl could give an admirer a lock of hair at his request and accept one, provided that neither was set in a jewel (BURY p.44). Trade of hair between family members was common, as was exchange of hair during the departure of a loved one for a period of time. Mourning pieces were often referenced in a will, with money left allocated for the chosen pieces. This could range from hairwork in rings to lockets. During the 19th century and the mass hairworking industry, inexpensive bands of woven hair (not always of the deceased), with pinchbeck fittings were a popular choice. Memorial pieces could also be commissioned by family members, in the shape of bracelets, earrings or whatever the wearer chose. This custom can be traced back to the late 16th / early 17th centuries, with notably William Shakespeare allocating mourning rings in his will (1616). There are many different reasons for the creation of hairwork jewellery and memorials, but at their inception, it is about love.
History
Prior to the rise of the hairworking industry and its prominence in mainstream jewellery, gifts of hair were considered tokens of affection and love between two people. Bury refers to The Relique (or The Relic) by poet John Donne (1571-1631) and its very early reference to a hair bracelet:
"When my grave is broke up againe
Some second ghest to entertaine,
(For graves have learn'd that woman-head
To be to more than one a Bed)
And he that digs it, spies
A bracelet of bright haire about the bone,
Will he not let us alone,
And thinke that there a loving couple lies"
Donne speaks in metaphysical terms about the unifying nature of spiritual love, as when he and his lover are dug up, they remain the symbol for holy and eternal love. From this, the poem is an excellent perspective on the sentimentality of hairwork at the turn of the 17th century. Wearing hair was an encompassing symbol of union and love between two people.
Donne wasn't unique in his wearing of a hair bracelet, however, as Count de Grammont viewed several people wearing hairwork bracelets in the Court of the restored Charles II, circa 1660 1. This ties in with the rising prominence of other sentimental jewellery at that time. From love tokens, such as posy rings, to hair woven under crystal in slides, brooches, rings and other forms of jewellery, sentimental jewellery was rapidly evolving over the 17th century. Within these forms of sentimental jewellery, the use of hair became ever more prominent. Another example from 1647/8 of the popularity of hairwork within mainstream culture can be seen in Mary Varney's letter to Sir Raplh Varney, asking to send locks of their daughter's hair "to make bracelets? I know you could not send a more acceptable thing than every one of your sisters a bracelet"2. At the time, Ralph was living in exile in France during the Protectorate. Hair tokens within families was the more common practice, but as jewels grew as a social device, so did their nature as a personal statement.
Royalty at the time also propagated the hairwork custom, exemplified by Queen Henrietta Maria (1609-69) wearing a hair bracelet as a token of affection. Factors such as these laid the groundwork for the hairworking industry that was to come. As discussed by Bury, in 1685 mourning lockets "are at least £6 in the making". This was an extravagant price for a slide or locket of the time, leading to an increased allowance for mourning jewels in wills 3.
Evolution of hairwork over the 18th century was rapid and on a large scale. Jewellery changed with fashion, as the two are intrinsically linked. Smaller styles of jewellery that had grown with the 17th century began to disappear and by around 1760, and new, larger forms became the standard. Hairwork over this time was becoming more affordable and a craft which ladies could do at home (though not to the extent of the 19th century). A letter from the Duchess of Portland to Miss Catherine Collingwood, written on December 1st 1735, suggests that ladies were in the habit of working the hair, leading the goldsmiths to provide the gold settings 4. Pieces made to order became more and more popular in the first half of the 18th century, with lockets (especially in the popular heart motif) containing hair becoming increasingly common. As larger jewellery with glass replaced faceted crystal, simple weaves of hair could be placed underneath, without it being a speciality craft or as expensive. By the 1760s, hair was reintroduced in mass produced memorial medallions and lockets (in England and on the Continent), as it was mixed in with sepia and painted on to ivory 5. Sepia / hair painting is a typical and very popular method from the 1760s to around 1810, with many pieces being a standard style (sometimes chosen from a hairworker?s catalogue) and tailored to the individual with the appropriate name and inscription. Chopped hair also was a common feature of memorial art on ivory (sometimes vellum), with scenes / symbolism assembled with hair and glue. Hair weaving was also in high demand, with everything from brooches to miniatures holding a compartment in which to place the woven hair. Hair weaving was becoming far more intricate, with hair being entwined with pearls and gold.
By the 19th century, the custom of hairwork had become ingrained in popular culture of the time, spanning Europe to America, and the hairworking industry hit its peak. The popularity of hairwork and its move from country to country was not a singular event, but reflects more upon society of the time. Hairworking industries along the Continent have their roots in hairwork as a folk art and female amateurs practicing the art in their home. Because of this, the popularity spread through Europe, especially prominent in France, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden and even across to Bohemia. The American hairwork industry evolved in its own right, growing in prominence over the 19th century (particularly during the Civil War) and still exists in a small capacity even today. Hairwork lends itself easily to other forms of household practices, such as stitching and weaving, which makes it transcend many cultural barriers, and the sentimentality of it only adds to its necessity. As a mourning device, hairwork is a vital memorial statement within the family. Coupled with household art in the 18th to early 20th centuries, hairwork was another way to display the loved one's hair. Samplers and hairwork memorials are prime examples of hairwork as a folk art. Samplers vary from country to country, as do hairwork memorials, which can take the shape of flowers within wreaths, crosses and a variety of other memorial symbols. Especially in America, hair wreaths were a "popular parlor pastime like many other crafts" for women 6. German and Swiss hairwork memorials were often quite different from the American, as there was a greater use of depth and colour 7. French were more palette-worked (cut-work and sepia) and more darker, while German and Swiss hair is fairer with greater use of watercolour 8. German hair memorials often used two panes of glass with one being a painted background and the foreground applied hairwork 9. Again, regional variation within the hairwork paradigm is the prerogative of the creator or evolution within the household.
Royalty was still the focus of the hairworking fashion for the 19th century, spanning through the Georgian and finding renewed popularity in the Victorian age. Fashion was often dictated by royalty, and it was royalty which largely perpetuated the popularity of memorial jewellery. When hairwork was worn by anyone of note, fashion often followed, as seen in the previous account of Queen Henrietta Maria and the use of memorial jewellery for Charles I during the Restoration period. In the 19th century, the executor of
George IV's estate, the Duke of Wellington, told Charles Greville that amongst George IV's possessions he found "a prodigious quantity of hair - women's hair - all colours and lengths, some locks with powder and pomatum still sticking to them" 10. From around 1830, this quote from Wellington displays the extent to which hairwork was embraced by mainstream culture at the time. An extraordinary quantity of hair kept by George IV implies its importance as a keepsake even at the upper levels of society. Queen Victoria is one of the most popular figures regarding the rise of the mourning industry and the increasing strength of the hairworking industry. Victoria's fastidious sentimental nature and her clinging to keepsakes can be seen in her putting Albert's hair in brooches, bracelets and other forms of jewellery after his death. Keeping hair was as important as giving, due to the nature of the sentiment. Empress Eugenie of France was "was touched to tears when I gave her a bracelet with my hair", wrote Queen Victoria upon presenting the bracelet 11. Though these instances of hairwork in royalty show how popular hairwork was, they are from an English perspective. Other countries and cultures developed their own hairworking industry that permeated through mainstream society of the 19th century.
Hairwork in France was another industry that could rival the English or American in the mid 19th century. Evans notes that "jewellery enclosing hair-work remained very popular in France until c. 1850", while previously from 1778 there was a vogue for wearing hair jewellery for its sentiment, rather than for memorial purposes 12.
French hairwork, and the jewels that encompass the hair, tend to be of a higher quality and more delicate than their English counterparts. Mourning culture, while popular, did not reach the heights of popularity that it did in England and the expense and quality of the jewels were farther removed from the poorer classes. Hairwork weaving is as grand in its construction, as with middle European hairwork, with a higher propensity for matching necklace / bracelet / earring sets.
In 1858, fashion magazine La Belle Assemblè referred to the French hairwork artist Limmonièr in a revolutionary light. La Belle Assemblè expands on the association with hairwork as a sentimental device and identifies it as a jewellery construction material in its own right, not simply "in which some beloved tress or precious curl is entwined" 13.
"(Old styles) gave the appearance of having been designed from a 'mortuary tablet'. Have we not all met ladies wearing as a brooch, by way of loving remembrance, a tomb between two willow trees formed of the hair of the individual from whom their crêpe was worn, and which from its very nature must be laid aside with it? But the new hair jewelry made by Limmonièr is an ornament for all times and places. He expands it into a broad ribbon as a bracelet and fastens it with a forget-me-not in turquoise and brilliants; weaves it into chains for the neck, the flacon, or the fan; makes it into a medallion, or leaves and flowers; and of these last the most beautiful specimens I have seen have been formed of the saintly white hair of age. This he converts into orange flowers, white roses, chrysanthemum and most charming of all, clusters of lily-of-the-valley.14"
La Belle Assemblè provides a very good advertising spiel for Limmonièr but also provides an insight into how the French perceived hairwork in 1858. By the latter half of the 19th century, hairwork was nearing a phase of unpopularity in France, though this article shows how hairwork was removed, or was attempted to be removed, from mourning and memorials. The article ridicules prior styles of hairwork, as being designed from a "mortuary tablet", and the stale nature of the depictions of hairwork. By 1858, many of these symbols were not being heavily used in mainstream mourning jewellery, being widely used in the late 18th century / early 19th century with the popularity of neo-classical art. However, the point is made, that hairwork is a beautiful material when combined with Limmonièr's artistry
Another example of the extent to which hairwork was a practiced art in France is at the Paris Exhibition of 1855. A life-size portrait of Queen Victoria was created for the Paris Exhibition, a worthwhile homage to a queen who appreciated the sentiment of hairwork so much 16.
Horsehair jewellery is another variation on hairwork. Horsehair was often dyed red and woven into large hairwork designs. Other variations are black and white contrasting horse hair woven into chains (pictured left). As outlined by Cooper and Battershill, horsehair was also worked with human hair to make it more firm 17.
The hairworking industry in England was the main focus of the memorial industry and accordingly, there were many professionals who practiced the art.
"Hair jewellery, Artist in Hair. Dewdney begs to inform Ladies or Gentlemen that he beautifully makes, and elegantly mounts in gold, Hair Bracelets, Chains, Brooches, Rings, Pins, Studs, etc. and forwards the same, at about one-half the usual charge. A beautiful collection of specimens handsomely mounted kept for inspection. An illustrated book sent free. Dewdney, 172 Fenchurch St. London." (Advertisement, Illustrated London News, May 1862) 18
There was much competition within the English industry in the 19th century. Advertisements, such as the one above, are examples of the extent to which hairworkers would go to in order to gain business. Alfred Shuff, of 34 Great Marlborough Street, Fosser of Hanover Street, Cleal of Poland Street and Bakewell of Red Lion Street, were all well known hairworkers and presented their hair at exhibitions 19. Alfred Shuff was noted for his hairwork in the mid 19th Century 20. However, it was B.Lee of 41 Rathbone Place who exhibited his work at the Great Exhibition of 1851 21.
19th century hairworking artists found it cheaper to purchase hair from convents on the Continent rather than use the hair given to them by clients, as stated by Godey's A Series of Papers on The Hair (1855): "Among the many curious occupations of the metropolis of London, is that of the human hair merchant. Of these there are several, and they import between them more than fifty tons of hair annually. Both England and the United States draw a large portion of their supply of human hair, and of articles made of hair, from France and Prussia. A singular feature on the continent is this 'hair harvest', as it has been termed". 22 The 1840s - 1880s saw popularity in rings, bracelets, earrings and many other mass produced hairwork jewellery items. However popularity in English hairwork declined after 1880s, as did the mourning culture. New art styles, changing fashion and jewellery construction had evolved, making hairwork seem outdated in comparison.
America's hairworking industry is as old as the United States itself, beginning in folk art and evolving to one of the largest industries in the world. Many memorial pieces began as folk art, such as samplers, due to their relation to the family and their textile creation. Items could be produced in-house and need not be commissioned by a third party. American quilting of the early 19th century produced its own version of the form. American symbolism can differ from European, with the inclusion of the bald headed eagle and American flag. Samplers were also created throughout regional Europe, with different regions having their own variations on the typical symbolism. Swiss styles of the mid 19th Century are broader in size and depend on the art of the neoclassical period. English samplers carried the familiar motifs of the previous century through, but are quite formal in style.
Being an primary part of the education of young women, weaving and needlework are essential in the personal creation of mourning items, specifically samplers and their evolution 23. When looking for styles in construction of samplers, DeLorme describes these techniques; "the simple cross stitch, most commonly employed in a young girl's first sampler, was later to include satin stitch, French knot, running and outline stitches, seed and bullion, couching and crewel" 24. Mourning samplers with water colour painting in the piece, as well as coloured silk, wool, or chenille thread on silk or satin background are also prolific, according to DeLorme. Hairwork memorials with woven hairwork (regularly in the shape of flowers) placed over a background (often silk) and framed are a popular use of hair as a material, as well as being chopped and glued in the form of a memorial image.
An excellent example of the popularity of American and French hairwork in the 19 th century can be seen in Mark Campbell's Self Instructor in the art of Hair Work Dressing Hair, Making Curls, Switches, Braids and Hair Jewelry of Every Description (1878), which was published in New York and Chicago and proudly states that it was "compiled from original designs and the latest Parisian patterns" 25. The United States evolved their style, following on from the Continent. For every step Europe took, America followed. In 1853, the United States held its own version of the Great Exhibition of 1851 at the Crystal Palace in New York, which had a large quantity of hairwork jewellery 26. Impressively, a tea and coffee set made by Limherr & Co (located at 577 Broadway), was displayed, made of human hair. This display of innovation is unique in its own right, and exemplifies the skill of the American industry.
American prices for hairwork can be seen in this extract from Godey's Armchair, February 1857, p. 188:
"HAIR ORNAMENTS--Ladies wishing hair made into bracelets, pins (which are very beautiful), necklaces or ear-rings, can be accommodated by our Fashion Editor. A very large number of orders have recently been filled, and the articles have given great satisfaction.
We give the prices at which we will send these beautiful articles:--
Breastpins, from $4 to $12.
Ear-rings, from $4 50 to $10.
Bracelets, from $3 to $15.
Rings, from $1 50 to $3.
Necklaces, from $6 to $15.
Fob-chains, from $6 to $12.
The Charms of Faith, Hope, and Charity, $4 50"
Many of the above prices are equal to the weekly wage, which highlights that hairwork was not a frivolous trade or regarded any less than other forms of jewellery. Though it could be practiced at home, the hairworker's trade was difficult and could command the price required.
The October 8, 1853 edition of Gleason Pictorial Drawing-Room Companion adequately outlines the American fascination of hairwork; "to perfection to which this new art has been brought has led to the general adoption of these ornaments by the ladies, and they are now almost as much worn by the 'upper ten' as are golden ornaments; and that the effect - to say nothing of the pleasant ideal of thus wearing the hair of those we love and cherish - is incomparably superior to metallic jewelry, no person of good taste will venture to deny. 27" Hairwork is love and more sentimental than any metal could be, that is the non-fungible nature of hair as a material.
